Buzul (Glasyal) Turizmi: Kavramsal Bir Değerlendirme
Özet
Bu çalışma, doğa ve macera turizminin özel bir niş türü olarak kabul edilen buzul turizminin kavramsal çerçevesini, dünyadaki önemli destinasyonlarını, iklim değişikliğine uyum süreçlerini ve sürdürülebilirliğini bütüncül bir yaklaşımla incelemektedir. Kriyosferik ve jeomorfolojik çekiciliklere dayanan buzul turizmi; güncel ve paleobuzul alanlarında gerçekleştirilen buzul yürüyüşü, dağ tırmanışı, buz mağarası gezileri, helikopter turları, manzara seyri, bilimsel araştırmalar ve kültürel ayinler gibi çok yönlü faaliyetleri kapsamaktadır. Fransa, İsviçre, Norveç, Çin, Arjantin, Kanada ve Yeni Zelanda gibi ülkelerde gelişmiş ulaşım ve altyapı olanaklarıyla yürütülen bu turizm türü, bölgesel ekonomilere yüksek katma değer sağlamaktadır. Ancak küresel iklim değişikliğinin neden olduğu hızlı buzul erimeleri ve kütle kayıpları, bu niş pazarın geleceğini ve sürdürülebilirliğini ciddi biçimde tehdit etmektedir. Bu tehditlere karşı çevre koruma yasaları, buzul kaplama çalışmaları, yapay kar üretimi, alternatif rota tasarımları ve son şans turizmi gibi çeşitli adaptasyon stratejileri geliştirilmektedir. Türkiye'de Güneydoğu Toroslar, Doğu Karadeniz Dağları ve volkanik kütlelerde önemli güncel buzullar ile paleobuzul izleri bulunmasına karşın, buzul turizmi kavramına atıfta bulunan herhangi bir bilimsel araştırmaya rastlanmamıştır. Bu doğrultuda çalışma, Türkiye akademik literatüründeki mevcut boşluğu doldurmayı, konu genelinde farkındalık oluşturmayı ve gelecekte gerçekleştirilecek bölgesel planlamalar ile bilimsel araştırmalara temel bir kaynak sunmayı amaçlamaktadır.
This study comprehensively examines the conceptual framework, major global destinations, climate change adaptation processes, and sustainability of glacier tourism, which is considered a specialized niche form of nature and adventure tourism. Based on cryospheric and geomorphological attractions, glacier tourism encompasses multifaceted activities carried out in present-day and paleoglacier areas, including glacier walking, mountain climbing, ice cave tours, helicopter trips, sightseeing, scientific research, and cultural rituals. Conducted with advanced transport and infrastructure facilities in countries such as France, Switzerland, Norway, China, Argentina, Canada, and New Zealand, this form of tourism provides high added value to regional economies. However, rapid glacier melting and mass losses caused by global climate change severely threaten the future and sustainability of this niche market. In response to these threats, various adaptation strategies are being developed, including environmental protection laws, glacier covering projects, artificial snowmaking, alternative route designs, and last-chance tourism. Although Turkey possesses significant present-day glaciers and paleoglacier traces in the Southeastern Taurus Mountains, Eastern Black Sea Mountains, and volcanic massifs, no scientific research referencing the concept of glacier tourism has been found. Accordingly, the study aims to fill this gap in the Turkish academic literature, raise awareness on the subject, and provide a foundational resource for future regional planning and scientific research.
Referanslar
Abrahams, Z., Hoogendoorn, G., & Fitchett J. M. (2021). Glacier tourism and tourist reviews: an experiential engagement with the concept of “Last Chance Tourism”. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 22(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/15022250.2021.1974545.
Aniya, M., Enomoto, H., Aoki, T., Matsumoto, T., Skvarca, P., Barcaza, G., Suzuki, R., Sawagaki, T., Sato, N., Isenko, E., Iwasaki, S., Sala, H., Fukuda, A., Satow, K., & Naruse, R. (2007). Glaciological and geomorphological studies at Glaciar Exploradores, Hielo Patagónico Norte, and Glaciar Perito Moreno, Hielo Patagónico Sur, South America, during 2003-2005 (GRPP03-05). Bulletin of Glaciological Research, 24:95-107.
Azzoni, R. S., Fugazza, D., Zennaro, M., Zucali, M., D’Agata, M., Maragno, D., & Diolaiuti, G. A. (2017). Recent structural evolution of Forni glacier tongue (Ortles-Cevedale Group, Central Italian Alps). Journal of Maps,13(2), 870-878.
BBC, (2015). Pilgrimage to the mountains. Date of access: 20.01.2022. Link: https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-32888643.
Bosson, J. B., Huss, M., & Osipova, E. (2019). Disappearing World Heritage glaciers as a keystone of nature conservation in a changing climate. Earth’s Future, 7(4), 469-479, https://doi.org/10.1029/2018EF001139.
Brandolini, P., & Pelfini, M. (2010). Mapping geomorphological hazards in relation to geotourism and hiking trails. In G. Regolini-Bissig & E. Reynard (Eds.), Mapping Geoheritage (pp. 31-45). Lausanne: Institut de geographie.
Che, Y., Zhang, M., Li, Z., Li, H.,Wang, S., Sun, M.,& Zha, S. (2017). Glacier massbalance and length variation observed in China during the periods 1959-2015 and 1930-2014. Quaternary International, 454 (Supplement C):68-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2017.07.003.
Cullen, N. J., Sirguey, P., Mölg, T., Kaser, G., Winkler, M., & Fitzsimons, S. J. (2013). A century of ice retreat on Kilimanjaro: The mapping reloaded. The Cryosphere, 7(2), 419-431.
Çiner, A. (2004). Turkish glaciers and glacial deposits. Ehlers, J., Gibbard, P. L. (Eds.), In: Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology, Part I: Europe, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 419-429.
Demiroğlu, O. C., Dannevig, H., & Aall, C. (2018). Climate change acknowledgement and responses of summer (glacier) ski visitors in Norway. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 18(4), 419-438. https://doi.org/10.1080/15022250.2018.1522721.
Diolaiuti, G., & Smiraglia, C. (2010). Changing glaciers in a changing climate: how vanishing geomorphosites have been driving deep changes in mountain landscapes and environments. Groupe Fr. Geomorphology. https:// doi.org/10.4000/geomorphologie.7882.
Espiner, S., & Becken, S. (2014). Tourist towns on the edge: Conceptualising vulnerability and resilience in a protected area tourism system. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(4), 646-665. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2013.855222.
Furunes, T., & Mykletun, R. J. (2012). Frozen adventure at risk? A 7-year follow-up study of Norwegian glacier tourism. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 12(4), 324-348. https://doi.org/10.1080/15022250.2012.748507.
Garavaglia, V., Diolaiuti, G., Smiraglia, C., Pasquale, V., & Pelfini, M. (2012). Evaluating tourist perception of environmental changes as a contribution to managing natural resources in glacierized areas: A case study of the Forni glacier (Stelvio National Park, Italian Alps). Environmental Management, 50(6), 1125-1138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-012-9948-9.
Hay, J. E., & Elliot, T. L. (2008). New Zealand glaciers: Key national and global assets for science and society. In B. S. Orlove, E. Wiegandt, & B. H. Luckman (Eds.), Darkening peaks: Glacier retreat, science, and society (pp. 185195). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Kaenzig, R., Rebetez, M., & Serquet, G. (2016). Climate change adaptation of the tourism sector in the Bolivian Andes. Tourism Geographies, 18(2), 111-128. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2016.1144642.
Kurter, A. (1991). Glaciers of Middle East and Africa-Glaciers of Turkey. In: Satellite Image Atlas of the World, R. S. Williams, J. G. Ferrigno (Eds.). USGS Professional Paper, 1386-G-l, 1-30.
Lemelin, H., Dawson, J., Stewart, E. J., Maher, P., & Lueck, M. (2010). Last-chance tourism: The boom, doom, and gloom of visiting vanishing destinations. Current Issues in Tourism, 13(5), 477-493. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500903406367.
Liu, X., Yang, Z., & Xie, T. (2006). Development and conservation of glacier tourist resources-A case study of Bogda Glacier Park. Chinese Geographical Science, 16(4), 365-370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11769-006-0365-y.
Løvoll, H. S. (2019). The inner feeling of glacier hiking: an exploratory study of “immersion” as it relates to flow, hedonia and eudaimonia, Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 19:3, 300-316. https://doi.org/10.1080/15022250.2019.1581084.
Los Glaciare MP., (2022). Perito Moreno glacier area photo galery. Date of access: 30.01.2022, Link: http://www.losglaciares.com/en/parque/galeria/017.html.
Mehmetoğlu, M. (2007a). Typologising nature-based tourists by activity: Theoretical and practical implications. Tourism Management, 28(3), 651-660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.02.006.
Mehmetoğlu, M. (2007b). Nature-based tourism: A contrast to everyday life. Journal of Ecotourism, 6 (2), 111-126. https://doi.org/10.2167/joe168.0.
Mourey, J., & Ravanel, L. (2017). E´volution des itin´eraires d’acc`es au X refuges du bassin de la Mer de Glace (massif du Mont Blanc, France). Journal of Alpine Research | Revue de g´eographie alpine.105-4. https://doi.org/10.4000/rga.3780.
Naald, B.V. (2020). Examining tourist preferences to slow glacier loss: evidence from Alaska.Tourism Recreation Research, 45:1, 107-117. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2019.1606978.
Omoto, K., & Ohmura, A. (2015). Pictorial 2: history of retreat of the Rhone glacier recorded photographically. Journal of Geography, 124 (1).
Pang, H., He, Y., & Zhang, N. (2007) Accelerating glacier retreat on Mt. Yulong, Tibetan Plateau, since the late 1990s. Journal of Glaciology 53(181): 317-319. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756507782202900.
Purdie, H. (2013). Glacier retreat and tourism: Insights from New Zealand. Mountain Research and Development, 33(4), 463-472. https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD- JOURNAL-D-12-00073.1.
Purdie, H., Anderson, B., Chinn, T., Owens, I., Mackintosh, A., & Lawson, W. (2014). Franz Josef and Fox glaciers, New Zealand: historic length records. Global and Planetary Change, 121, 41-52.
Purdie, H., Gomez, C., & Espiner, S. (2015). Glacier recession and the changing rockfall hazard: Implications for glacier tourism. New Zealand Geographer, 71(3), 189-202. https://doi.org/10.1111/nzg.12091.
Purdie, H., Hutton, J. H., Stewart, E., & Espiner, S. (2020). Implications of a changing alpine environment for geotourism: A case study from Aoraki/Mount Cook, New Zealand. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, 29, 100235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2019.100235.
Rasul, G., Pasakhala, B., Mishra, A., & Pant, S. (2019). Adaptation to mountain cryosphere change: Issues and challenges. Climate and Development, 12(4), 297-309. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2019.1617099.
Salim, E., Mabboux, L., Ravanel, L., Deline, P. & Gauchon, C. (2021a). A history of tourism at the Mer de Glace: Adaptations of glacier tourism to glacier fluctuations since 1741. Journal of Mountain Science, 18, 1977-1994. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-021-6723-5.
Salim, E., Ravanel, L., Deline, P., & Gauchon, C. (2021b). A review of melting ice adaptation strategies in the glacier tourism context. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 21 (2), 229-246. https://doi.org/10.1080/15022250.2021.1879670.
Salim, E., Ravanel, L., Bourdeau, P., & Deline, P. (2021c). Glacier tourism and climate change: effects, adaptations, and perspectives in the Alps. Regional Environmental Change, 21, 120. 2715. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01849-0.
Sarıkaya, M. A., Zreda, M., & Çiner, A. (2009). Glaciations and paleoclimate of Mount Erciyes, central Turkey, since the Last Glacial Maximum, inferred from 36Cl cosmogenic dating and glacier modeling. Quaternary Science Reviews, 28, 2326-2341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.04.015.
Sarıkaya, M. A. (2012). Recession of the ice cap on Mount Ağrı (Ararat), Turkey, from 1976 to 2011 and its climatic significance. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 46, 190-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2011.12.009.
Schauwecker, S., Rohrer, M., Acuna, D., Cochachin, A., Davila, L., Frey, H., Giroldez, C., Gomez, J., Huggel, C., Jacques-Coper, M., Loarte, E., Salzmann, N., & Vuille, M. (2014). Climate trends and glacier retreat in the Cordillera Blanca, Peru, revisited. Global and Planetary Change. 119, 85-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.05.005.
Stewart, E. J., Wilson, J., Espiner, S., Purdie, H., Lemieu, X. C., & Dawson, J. (2016). Implications of climate change for glacier tourism. Tourism Geographies, 18(4), 377-398. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2016.1198416.
Sun, M., Liu, S., Yao, X., Guo, W., & Xu, J. (2018). Glacier changes in the Qilian Mountains in the past half-century: based on the revised first and second Chinese glacier inventory. Journal of Geography Science, 28(2), 206-220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11442-018-1468-y.
UNESCO, (2022). Waterton Glacier International Peace Park. Date of access: 26.01.2022. Link: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/354/.
Vincent, C., Peyaud, V., Laarman, O., Six, D., Gilbert, A., Gillet-Chaulet, F., Berthier, É, Morin, S.,Verfaillie, D., Rabatel, A., Jourdain, B., & Bolibar, J. (2019). Déclin des deux plus grands glaciersdes Alpes françaises au cours du XXIe siècle: Argentière et Mer de Glace. [Decline of the two largest glaciers in the French Alps during the 21st century: Argentière and Mer de Glace]. La Météorologie, 106, 49-59. https://doi.org/10.4267/2042/70369.
Wang, S. J., & Jiao, S. T., (2012). Mountain Glacier Tourism and Climate Change: Impacts and Adaptation. In: Tanja, Mihalic, William, C. Gartner (Eds.), Tourism and Developments e Issues and Challenges. Nova Science Publishers, INC, Hauppauge, NewYork.
Wang, L., Zeng, Y., & Zhong, L. (2017). Impact of climate change on tourism on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau: Research based on a literature review. Sustainability, 9(9), 1539. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9091539.
Wang, S. J., & Zhou, L. Y. (2019). Integrated impacts of climate change on glacier tourism. Advances in Climate Change Research, 10(2), 71-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.accre.2019.06.006.
Wang, S. J., He, Y., & Song, X. (2010). Impacts of climate warming on alpine glacier tourism and adaptive measures: A case study of Baishui glacier No. 1 in Yulong Snow mountain, Southwestern China. Journal of Earth Science, 21(2), 166-178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12583-010-0015-2.
Wang, S. J., Mu, Y., Zhang, X., & Xie, J. (2020). Polar tourism and environment change: Opportunity, impact and adaptation. Polar Science, 25, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polar.2020.100544.
Welling, J. T., Arnason, P., & Olafsdottir, R. (2015). Glacier tourism: A scoping review. Tourism Geographies, 17(5), 635-662. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2015.1084529.
Welling, J., & Abegg, B. (2019). Following the ice: Adaptation processes of glacier tour operators in Southeast Iceland. International Journal of Biometeorology, 65, 703-715. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-019-01779-x.
Yavaşlı, D. D., Tucker, C. J., & Melocik, K. A. (2015). Change in the glacier extent in Turkey during the Landsat Era. Remote Sensing of Environment, 163, 32-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2015.03.002.
Zhou, Y., Li, Z., Li, J., Zhao, R., & Ding, X. (2018). Glacier mass balance in the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and its surroundings from the mid-1970s to 2000 based on Hexagon KH-9 and SRTM DEMs. Remote Sensing of Environment, 210, 96-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.03.020.
Zuev, D., & Picard, D. (2015). Reconstructing the Antarctic tourist interaction ritual chain: Visual sociological perspective. The Polar Journal, 5:1, 146-169. https://doi.org/10.1080/2154896X.2015.1025495.
